Honoring Martin Luther King in Stone: The John Wilson Sculpture in the Capitol Rotunda

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busts, Capitol Art, Capitol artists, John Wilson, Martin Luther King Jr., MLK bust, MLK Day, sculpture, U.S. Capitol artwor

by Ronald M. Johnson

On January 16, 1986, Coretta Scott King unveiled a memorial bust of her husband in the U.S. Capitol Rotunda. The unveiling, a moving event unto itself, helped inaugurate the larger observance of the first federal holiday honoring his life. Resting on a black marble base, the bronze sculpture reflected the strength that Martin Luther King, Jr. embodied throughout his short life. The day marked a major step forward in advancing the legacy of a man who Congress and President Ronald Reagan had honored just three years earlier with legislation establishing a national holiday in his honor.

Courtesy Architect of the Capitol

The King sculpture immediately became an important part of the large grouping of federal statuary that is on display in the Rotunda, a room with the feel of sacred setting for those who visit. In this space, art and politics merge. There are statues of George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, Dwight David Eisenhower, Ulysses S. Grant, Thomas Jefferson, and Alexander Hamilton, among others, as well as the Portrait Monument to Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony. The lives represented by this statuary remind all Americans of the nation’s long and illustrious history.

At the same time, each of these works of art had brought recognition to the artists who created them. The artistry of Antoine Houdon, Vinnie Ream, Jim Brothers, Franklin Simmons, Pierre-Jean David d’Angers, Horatio Stone, and Adelaide Johnson, among many others, reflect a wide and diverse array of sculpture stretching back to the early nineteenth century. In this space, at the very center of the U.S. Capitol, artists sought to portray in stone individuals who had played critical roles in the shaping of American society.

The King memorial bust added a new artist to this group. Born in Roxbury, Massachusetts, in 1922, African-American sculptor John Wilson brought a unique perspective to his work. Initially trained at Tufts University and then an art student in both Paris and Mexico City, he had been a professor at Boston University since 1964. His work could be found in major museums and galleries throughout the nation, such as the DeCordova Museum and the Museum of Modern Art. He pursued his art with a strong sense of purpose. “Essentially, he felt that his main objective as an artist was to deliver a message to people about black dignity, about racial justice, about poor people trying to get a better deal in life,” his wife Julie Kowitch noted.

In early 1983, John Wilson joined the competition with other sculptors in response to House Concurrent Resolution 153, which sought to memorialize the famous civil rights activist. In 1985, the selection committee, including Coretta Scott King, chose John Wilson’s submission and awarded him a commission to cast his winning model for the memorial bust in bronze.

Over the next year, Wilson steadily worked on this task. His son Roy remembered that he “moved with tremendous energy. Each stroke seemed decisive.” Finally, by year’s end, the bust was completed. Then in early 1986, before the unveiling, he covered his work with an old sleeping bag, placed it in the back of his car, and headed to the Capitol Rotunda.

This 1997 Boston Globe photo by Barry Chin shows John Wilson with one of his sculptures.

Up to this point, he had never visited the U.S. Capitol. “Somehow it seemed like the epitome of the seat of power, and it alienated me,” he later recalled. “I never felt part of it. But when I delivered the sculpture, that changed. I felt,

‘A piece of me is in that building.'” The King memorial bust continues to both convey the greatness of King and the creative effort of the sculptor, which he hoped would “stimulate people to learn more about King, to perpetuate his struggle.” At the bust’s unveiling, Sen. Charles “Mac” Mathias, Jr. noted that the sculpture assured that “Martin Luther King Jr. takes his rightful place among the heroes of this nation.” (New York Times, Jan. 17, 1986)

When John Wilson died in January 2015, almost thirty years had passed since the bust took its place in the Rotunda. In a review of his life, Boston Globe writer Bryan Marquard wrote about Wilson and the King bust. He noted that like “much of his most important work, the bust brings viewers to the intersection of art and politics, of pure creativity and the desire to examine social injustice.” These words help us understand that in creating the memorial bust, John Wilson invites the viewer to see Martin Luther King as both a man of protest and a great American patriot.

Note on Sources: The Architect of the Capitol website provides ample information on the Martin Luther King Memorial Bust. Regarding John Wilson’s remarkable life, see Bryan Marquard’s summary of his life and work in the Boston Globe (January 26, 2015). All unattributed quotations used in this blog can be found in the Marquard obituary. Robin Toner authored the New York Times article, “Best of Dr. King Joins Others of Nation’s Heroes” for the Jan. 17, 1986 edition.

 

 

Constantino Brumidi: Immigrant or Refugee Pt. 2

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Capitol Art, Capitol artists, Constantino Brumidi, immigration history, Montgomery Meigs

We’re marking the anniversary of Brumidi’s birth by revisiting remarks from a 2015 celebration. See here for Part 1.

–by William C. diGiacomantonio

So, what role did his experiences have in Constantino Brumidi’s removal to America? Did it really make him a “refugee” rather than just an “immigrant”? In other words, did he feel that he had a choice in whether to stay or go, after his release?

Instead of hearing Brumidi invoke human and civil rights like freedom of expression, we find him bargaining with the Vatican for his release—within months of his arrest, and well before his conviction—so that he can go to America to broaden his commercial opportunities as an artist. It is not a promise to remove a political thorn from the backside of Pius’ restored and increasingly reactionary regime.

Maybe Brumidi just expressed his bargaining position this way because it sounded more noble than groveling for forgiveness for the consequences of supposed political crimes. But there is no evidence that Brumidi remained under any police surveillance, much less sanctions, following his pardon. It certainly can’t be said that his flight to America constituted an indictment of the corruption of Church governance. And in fact, from almost the moment he arrived in the New World, his steady flower of art commissions for religious institutions comprise a kind of “seal of approval” by high churchmen who could not have been ignorant of Brumidi’s prior run-ins with the Church.

Here’s what I think: there is no reason to believe that Brumidi resented the Papacy—much less the Pope himself—as much as the administration of justice wielded in its name. Note that he was not prosecuted for treason, but for a criminal charge of larceny. (The pardon resulted from affidavits that Brumidi was simply removing the art work to more secure locations, away from rioters.)

Another way to think about the question of “refugee” versus “immigrant” is to consider what America was offering as an alternative to the world Brumidi was leaving behind.

Gen. Montgomery C. Meigs in the 1860s (Library of Congress)

Brumidi disembarked in New York City in September 1852—one of the 45,000 Italians who would arrive in America by 1870, during the first wave of Italian Immigration. (A second “great wave” of Italian immigration, the one we associate with old family photos from Ellis Island, lasted from the 1890s to the 1920s—when a young Italian farmboy named Carmen diGiacomantonio landed there, whose grandson is speaking to you now. There are others here today with similar stories, I know.) Brumidi’s work in the U.S. Capitol followed his personal introduction to Montgomery Meigs two years later, in December 1854. We all know that Brumidi would become a favorite among the many foreign artists whom Meigs employed and his preferment must seem to us, from this vantage point, as one of those inevitabilities of history. But of course nothing in history is inevitable. And in fact, Brumidi’s employment on the Capitol faced a serious backlash against what was seen as an over-reliance on foreign-born artists, to the exclusion of native born artists.

Recall that Brumidi’s first years in America coincided with the high-water mark of the Know-Nothing movement. In 1854—the very year Brumidi was first introduced to Meigs—the Know-Nothings reached the height of their political influence as a nativist, “America first,” anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic movement—owing in no small part to the notoriety of Pio Nono’s “un-American” form of political repression.

The 1850s was not the first time, and it wouldn’t be the last time, that native-born American workers would resent foreign hires. (Peter L’Enfant had been pilloried in the press for hiring too many fellow Frenchmen when he converted New York’s old city hall into the nation’s first Capitol—Federal Hall—in 1788.) But to an artist seeking freedom of expression, it must come as rude awakening, whenever it happens.

We have Brumidi’s own word for it, that he eventually came to regard America as a land of unequaled political freedom and economic opportunity. The commemorative plaque we passed coming into the cemetery today is testimony that as early as 1855 Brumidi considered his new mission in life “to make beautiful the capitol of the one country on earth in which there is liberty.” I would only suggest that perhaps that sense of mission was forged less out of fear of the past that optimism for the future. It does no disservice to Brumidi’s unquestioned sense of patriotism to say that his immigrating had less to do with being driven into a forced exile from a land of despotism, than freely seeking and embracing new, liberal traditions of political freedom and economic opportunity.

Constantino Brumidi: Refugee or Immigrant?

–by William C. diGiacomantonio

To mark the 211th birthday of the Capitol’s premier artist, Constantino Brumidi, we are posting the remarks presented at last year’s 210th birthday observance in a ceremony at Brumidi’s gravesite in DC’s Glenwood Cemetery (2219 Lincoln Rd., NE). There, a small but devoted and enthusiastic fellowship gathered to hear the USCHS’s chief historian, Chuck diGiacomantonio, talk about Brumidi’s coming to America. The group then laid flowers at Brumidi’s grave, shared thoughts about the artist, and afterwards re-convened at a local pizza joint for celebratory food and drink. The Constantino Brumidi Alliance and the USCHS hope to make the observance an annual event. Stay posted for announcements on the USCHS website as next July rolls around….

Part 2 will be published on Wednesday.

The title’s word choice is more than just boilerplate. It is meant to focus some perspective not on what Brumidi was coming to, but what he was leaving behind. As Brumidi’s “Apotheosis of Washington” goes into exile behind sheets and scaffolding, we might ask whether Brumidi’s removal to America was also a form of exile, as it is usually described. Then we might each play amateur art critic and better speculate how Brumidi’s Old World experience influenced his artistic themes and motives once he was here.

Brumidi, late in life (Credit: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs, Brady-Handy Collection)

The image that often comes to mind of Brumidi the man is that of a short (5’5”), stocky, dark-complexioned, vaguely foreign looking middle-aged man, sporting a hefty Karl-Marx-like beard. But picture, if you can, Brumidi a few decades younger than that. The probably much more dashing artist, half-Greek and half-Italian, was barely thirty when he executed his first major art commissions at the Palazzo Torlonia in his native Rome. The Torlonia family was so impressed that they retained him to work on the Villa Torlonia as well. In 1840 he attracted the attention of connoisseurs in the Curia, who hired him to rework some of the High-Renaissance era Loggias in the Vatican. He was already being regarded as one of Rome’s greatest artists by the time he painted Pius IX in 1847.

Pius IX became a major character in the story of Brumidi’s relocation to America, so he deserves more than just passing reference. His election in 1846 was regarded, justifiably, as a liberal turning point for the Church both spiritual and temporal. Peter’s successor, we’ll recall, was the ruling autocrat of a large swath of central Italy. And although the Papal States had already come to be seen as a plaything in European geopolitics, the Pope’s powers at home were more than just those of a figurehead. In time, Pius IX would become known as “Pio Nono”—which by a slight twist of pronunciation, can be made to mean not only “Pius the Ninth” but “Grandfather Pius”—which was an especially apt description of the man who would become the longest-reigning Pope in history. At his election, he was also one of the youngest popes—a quality that Brumidi captures in his portrait of the energetic, debonair looking Pius in 1847, one year in his papacy.

Pio Nono became the first Pope actually to step on U.S. sovereign territory when he alighted on the deck of the USS Constitution off the coast of Gaeta, Italy, in August 1850. History found Pio Nono in Gaeta as an exile from his experiment in liberalization gone awry. Infected by the so-called “Revolutions of 1848” against the post-Napoleonic reactionary settlement of Europe, Rome rose up against the Pope and established a Republic in 1849.

Brumidi, who had been serving as captain in the city’s militia under the old regime, naturally transferred his allegiance to the new regime. The Republic was suppressed after just a year (thanks, in part, to the pious intervention of Napoleon’s own nephew, Napoleon III), and Brumidi continued his painting uninterrupted—even completing one of his masterpieces, Rome’s Church of the Madonna dell’Archetto, within months of the Republic’s downfall. But by the time critics were praising his latest masterpiece, declaring Brumidi second only to the great painters of the High renaissance, he was already in jail on accusations of stealing art work from convents and monasteries during the short-lived revolt. He was found guilty in January 1852 and sentenced to 18 years—which was quickly reduced. He was pardoned altogether just two months later. And five months after that, he embarked for America.

So, what role did this experience have in Brumidi’s removal to America? Did it really make him a “refugee” rather than just an “immigrant”? In other words, did he feel that he had a choice in whether to stay or go, after his release?

Come back for Part 2 on Wednesday! In the comments, let us know if what you think about Brumidi’s status as an immigrant or refugee.

Capitol Apples

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apples, Brumidi Corridors, Capitol Fellows, Constantino Brumidi, fruit painted in the Capitol, John Chapman, Johnny Appleseed, Shana Klein, U.S. Capitol

–Shana Klein, Ph.D., Art History, University of New Mexico; USCHS Capitol Fellow

An apple features in this cluster of fruit from the Brumidi Corridors. (Christiana Cunningham-Adams)

March 11 has been declared National Johnny Appleseed Day. What better way to celebrate the occasion than by looking to the history of the Brumidi Corridors in the United States Capitol, where depictions of apples and other fruits decorate the hallways. Italian artist Constantino Brumidi painted the majority of the Capitol’s north wing corridors between 1857 and 1859.  Unlike other spaces in the Capitol devoted to heavy-handed allegorical scenes and history paintings, Brumidi devoted these hallways walked by nineteenth-century congressmen and presidents to ornamental depictions of fruit and flowers. And not just any fruit: Brumidi depicted the apple 32 times according to scholar and former U.S. Capitol Historical Society Fellow Jamie Whitacre in 2007 (Endnote 1). After surveying all of the fruits and flowers depicted in the corridors, Whitacre found that apples were one of the most frequently depicted fruits, third only to grapes and plums (rendered 53 and 36 times, respectively). Since then, conservators have discovered other fruits represented in the Capitol Building, including a banana. (If painted in the mid-nineteenth century, this is a surprising discovery given that the tropical banana would have been unfamiliar to most Americans at the time.)

Brumidi and his team of painters likely rendered the apple 32 times in the corridors because the apple was considered a uniquely American fruit. Ralph Waldo Emerson agreed, writing, “the apple is our national fruit…Man would be less solitary, less friended, less supported..withheld [of] this ornamental and social fruit” (Endnote 2). Preacher Henry Ward Beecher felt similarly, saying, “the apple is, beyond all question, the American fruit…the true democratic fruit…” (Endnote 3). Not surprisingly, the apple was used for the nation’s most patriotic dishes, including a historic recipe for George Washington pie.

Apples, however, are not indigenous to North America. The fruit was brought over by English colonists in the 1700s, who likely imported the fruit to bring a sense of home to the New World. It would then take decades for the apple to be eaten raw since raw fruit was generally thought to be unsavory and poisonous before the Civil War. Apples, instead, were largely used for cider—an alcoholic beverage that displeased many supporters of the temperance movement who felt that all forms of alcohol were sinful.

Johnny Appleseed, née John Chapman, helped revamp the reputation of the apple as a patriotic, virtuous food. Born with an entrepreneurial spirit, Appleseed roamed the western frontier (in today’s states of Ohio and Pennsylvania), donating apple seedlings for Americans to grow their own orchards. While Appleseed’s donation of seeds has been historically viewed as an act of charity to help American farmers, it was also a clever strategy to advance national expansion through the cultivation of western land under the prevailing doctrine of Manifest Destiny. Appleseed, nevertheless, proclaimed that his mission was charitable and religious, encouraging people to cultivate “God’s fruit” on “God’s land” (Endnote 4).

Brumidi, late in life (Credit: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs, Brady-Handy Collection)

More than 30 years later, Brumidi would paint the patriotic apple across the golden hallways of the Capitol’s south corridor. He painted the fruit in a neo-classical, trompe l’oeil style by manipulating elements of scale and shadow to make the fruit look three-dimensional. His application of red and yellow paint was so convincing that viewers no doubt felt tempted to pluck the fruit right off of the wall. (The dimensionality and tromp l’oeil effect of the apples has since been flattened because of varnishing done in the later twentieth century—a misdirection the today’s conservators are trying to correct.) Brumidi may have modeled the painting after real fruits and flowers, which would have been easily accessible to him with the U.S. Botanical Garden on the neighboring western property of the Capitol grounds (Endnote 5).

The patriotic associations of the apple, however, did not prevent Brumidi from garnering criticism for his murals, which critics claimed were too ornate and without national history and character. A number of congressmen similarly felt that the muralled halls were snobbish and unlike the plainness and simplicity of the American spirit (Endnote 6). Brumidi faced the unique challenge of decorating the Capitol in a worldly style without compromising its distinctly American character. Unlike the representations of pineapples or recently-discovered banana in the Capitol, Brumidi’s depiction of apples would have represented American identity to its viewers and the rich legacy of the fruit left by the mythical Johnny Appleseed.

Capitol Fellow Shana Klein

Notes:
1. Jamie Whitacre, “The Fruits and Flowers of the Brumidi Corridors,” The Capitol Dome 44.2 (Spring 2007), 8-14.
2. These quotes were gathered by Bruce Webber in his text, The Apple of America: The Apple in Nineteenth-Century American Art (New York: Berry-Hill Galleries, 1993).
3. Ibid.
4. For a more thorough cultural history of Johnny Appleseed, see: William Kerrigan, Johnny Appleseed and the American Orchard: A Cultural History (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2012); Michael Pollan, The Botany of Desire: A Plant’s Eye View of the World (New York: Random House Publishing Group, 2001); and Robert Price, Johnny Appleseed: Man and Myth (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1954).
5. The U.S. Botanical Garden was formally established in 1822 from a collection of plant specimens and seeds amassed by naval officer Charles Wilkes during his journey in the Pacific. More information can be found in the archival files in the office of the Curator of the Capitol.
6. This information was collected by former Curator of the Capitol Dr. Barbara Wolanin on page 94 of her seminal and encyclopedic text on the artist, Constantino Brumidi: Artist of the Capitol (Washington, DC: United States Congress, 1998).

Political Portraiture in the United States and France during the Revolutionary and Federal Eras, ca. 1776-1814

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louis xvi, marie-antoinette, Montana State University, political portraiture, Todd Larkin

A new conference organized by former U.S. Capitol Historical Society Fellow, Prof. Todd Larkin of Montana State University, will examine political portraiture in the United States and France, 1776 to 1814. The conference will be held September 25-26 in the Nan Tucker McEvoy Auditorium of the Smithsonian’s National Portrait Gallery.

The Montana State University Foundation and the Smithsonian’s National Portrait Gallery invite scholars, students, connoisseurs, and friends of American-French cultural exchange to attend the conference, which will mark the bicentennial of an important historical event: the British capture of Washington, D.C., in 1814 and their burning of the Capitol along with Congress’s state portraits of Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette.

European and North American scholars from universities and museums will discuss aspects of diplomatic strategy, democratic representation, and republican identity as promoted in portraits. This conference is made possible by generous support from the Terra Foundation for American Art, the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, and the Henry Luce Foundation.

This event is free and open to the public.
For more information, go to http://npg.si.edu/event/conference.html
Seating is limited, so please make a reservation at http://www.eventbrite.com/e/political-portraiture-in-the-united-states-and-france-conference-tickets-12277491307?aff=es2&rank=0

The Statue of Freedom Turns 150

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Capitol dome, Charles F. Thomas, Statue of Freedom, Thomas Crawford

–by Donald Kennon

One hundred and fifty years ago shortly after noon on December 2, 1863, workmen bolted the head of the Statue of Freedom atop the Capitol Dome, completing the statue’s installation.  The event was purposely low-key, even though it was marked by a volley of artillery from the Union forts that encircled the city. The New York Times, for example, had only a two-sentence notice in its dispatches from Washington that day: “The head or crowning feature at the statue of Freedom was successfully hoisted to its position on the dome of the Capitol, to-day, amid the cheers of the spectators below and a salute of cannon. The figure is made of bronze, is 19 feet high, weighs 15,000 pounds, was designed by CRAWFORD, and was cast by CLARK MILLS.”

The flag of the United States was unfurled from the statue and at that moment a photographer took a picture of the event from the west front side of the Capitol. A copy of that photograph, preserved in the collections of Charles F. Thomas, the engineer who supervised the installation, is shown here courtesy of the Architect of the Capitol, whose Flickr feed includes a high resolution image of the photograph.

We have two other blog posts about the Statue of Freedom .  Check out these posts for more perspectives on the statue’s history and meaning:

Building Freedom: The Story of an Enslaved Man and a Statue

December 2, 1863: The Speech That Was Never Given at the Capitol

The most recent issue of the Capitol Dome magazine has an interesting article by Katya Miller on the productive friendship between Thomas Crawford and Sen. Charles Sumner that culminated in the creation of the sculptor’s masterpiece. You can find the article online here.

Uncovering a National Treasure: The Brumidi Corridors

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art conservation, art restoration, Brumidi Corridors, Constantino Brumidi

–by Katie East, USCHS intern

Uncovering a National Treasure: The Restoration of the Brumidi Corridors in the United States Capitol

The halls of the Capitol’s Senate wing are slowly becoming bright and vivid. It is only because of the recent restoration that Brumidi’s intricate frescoes are coming back to their original glorious state. In a recent visit to the Capitol, I was lucky enough to speak with one of the experts restoring the Brumidi Corridors of the Capitol. He explained how the ten-year restoration project plans to uncover the masterful art lost under layers of paint. The specialist also explained the process through which they are to achieve their goals. It is through careful scraping with a scalpel and occasional use of solvents that the highly-skilled workers are able to dig through time and uncover Brumidi’s hidden treasures.

(Architect of the Capitol)

From 1857 to 1859, Constantino Brumidi, “The Michelangelo of the United States Capitol,” filled the walls and ceilings of the corridor with visually striking images. Birds, flowers, fruits, insects, classical figures, and historical scenes were brought to life with a three-dimensional quality lost up until the restoration. Brumidi’s main source of success was his mastery of various styles and techniques. An immigrant from Italy, Brumidi was among the most skilled classically trained painters in the United States at the time. After he painted a trial fresco in 1855, Brumidi and his dedicated team of artist-apprentices began the gorgeous span of frescoes that is currently being uncovered.

Brumidi, between 1855 and 1865 (Library of Congress)

Over the years, dirt and hallway traffic took its toll on these lovely works. Without knowledge of proper restoration, coat after coat of paint covered the formerly brilliant colors with darker shades and varnish that turned an unpleasant shade of yellow over time. The differences in color, luster, and design are striking. Small portions of sample restorations show the incremental changes to the art over time. In some instances, certain designs and details were completely painted over, as if their importance was not much realized. Up to eight layers of paint build-up have been carefully scraped away to expose original designs and colors. Altogether, the project has combined full and partial restoration with expert replications based on original descriptions of the work.

Conservator Christiana Cunningham-Adams at work on restoring Brumidi’s frescoes. (Architect of the Capitol)

One can expect that brighter hues, faux marble motifs, and interesting techniques unique to Brumidi will continue to emerge. The ambitious and meticulous task of restoring these great works will have an inarguably positive impact. Future generations will have the opportunity to view our nation’s hub of democracy in its original glory and Constantino Brumidi’s beautiful paintings may be enjoyed for years to come.

Works Cited

“About AOC.” Brumidi Corridors Restoration. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 July 2013. <http://www.aoc.gov/brumidi-corridors-restoration&gt;.

Applewhite, J. Scott. “Bright Art Being Restored in Capitol’s Halls.” Bright Art Being Restored in Capitol’s Halls – USATODAY.com. USA Today, 20 July 2007. Web. <http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-07-20-brumidi-corridors_N.htm?csp=34&gt;.

“Explore Capitol Hill.” Constantino Brumidi. Architect of the Capitol, n.d. Web. 18 July 2013. <http://www.aoc.gov/constantino-brumidi&gt;.

Wolanin, Barbara A.. Constantino Brumidi: Artist of the Capitol. Washington,D.C.: GPO, 1998. Chapter 6: “Decorating the Capitol in the Pompeian Style.”
http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-CDOC-103sdoc27/pdf/GPO-CDOC-103sdoc27-10-6.pdf

The Over-Under: African American and Confederate Soldiers in Statuary Hall

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Confederates in the Capitol, National Statuary Hall Collection, statues of African Americans in the Capitol

–by Alex Bookout, USCHS intern

The United States has its fair share of celebrated history, yet like every other country, it also has its history of grave wrongdoings. For the United States, a major portion of this abhorrent history occurred during the 18^th and 19^th centuries in the form of chattel slavery. However, rather than try to hide from the mistakes of past Americans, slavery has become very much an integral part of our history. It may not shine a favorable light on the United States, but slavery’s impact in our contemporary world is seen in literature, music, art, architecture, and academia, amongst other things. And through these areas of cultural impact, influential black leaders continue to emerge, permanently impacting U.S. history.

I bring up slavery and history because one day my mom asked me a question about my research on the statues in the Capitol: “How many African Americans are represented by statues?” At the time I was unsure, but I went on to research her question and noticed a pretty substantial disparity. What I found was astounding: out of the 100 statues in the National Statuary Hall Collection, none represented an African American. There are four African Americans that are represented in sculpture in the Capitol, three of which were sent by Congress and the other that was voted for by a district with no congressional representative. Congress commissioned a statue of Rosa Parks and busts of Martin Luther King Jr. and Sojourner Truth. The District of Colombia recently contributed a statue of Frederick Douglass, a selection that garnered some controversy because D.C. is not a state, and therefore the statue is not a part of the National Statuary Hall Collection. For the number of influential black leaders in the history of the United States, this hardly seems like equal representation.

Alexander Stephens (left) and Rosa Parks as they appear in the Capitol.

The question I am thankful my mom didn’t ask me was, “How many Confederates are represented in the Capitol?” If she did, I would have told her that there are several Confederate military and political leaders represented and countless other figures who supported slavery. Included are both the President and Vice President of the Confederacy, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi and Alexander Hamilton Stephens of Georgia. Legislation from 1864 states that each state is allowed to send two statues of “illustrious citizens deemed worthy of national commemoration” to represent their state in the National Statuary Hall Collection, but that the decision is up to them.[1] At the time, many of the “illustrious citizens” from the southern states were Confederates and slave holders. You cannot fault the person for being posthumously selected to be represented by a statue, but rather wonder today why they still stand. Since 1864, more prominent citizens have emerged and because of this, states have lobbied Congress to let them change their statues. Congress acknowledged this request and in 2003 passed a law which made it possible for states to replace existing statues. Despite this new law, states have replaced white males with white males; the only exception is Helen Keller from Alabama, who replaced J.L.M. Curry, a high ranking Confederate soldier. Alabama’s other statue, however, is General Joseph Wheeler, another Confederate soldier.

Many look to the 13^th Amendment, the end of slavery in the United States, as the mark of freedom for African Americans. Then there are those that argue that political equality for African Americans was not attained until the 1965 Voting Rights Act. And even then, people might say that complete social and economic equality still does not exist today. Looking at the underrepresentation of African Americans and the overrepresentation of those denying their rights in National Statuary Hall, you could very well make this claim. The absence of African Americans in National Statuary Hall does not show that states are overtly racist and it most certainly does not show that this country lacks illustrious black citizens. What it does do is remind us that although our country has made serious strides in equal rights and representation, we must continue to work toward a more perfect union.

Works Cited

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[1] Teresa B. Lachin, “Worthy of National Commemoration: National Statuary Hall and the Heroic Ideal, 1864-1997” in The United States Capitol: Designing and Decorating a National Icon, ed. by Donald R. Kennon (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2000), 274.

More for more information about the artwork in the Capitol, visit the websites of the Architect of the Capitol, the Senate History office, or the House Office of the Historian/Office of Art and Archives.

Welcoming Douglass to the Capitol

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Congressional Statue Collection, Frederick Douglass

–by Sarah Lewis and Allie Swislocki

Spirits were high on Wednesday, June 19 at the Capitol Visitor Center, when Washington, D.C.’s first statue was unveiled in Emancipation Hall. This day commemorates the abolition of slavery in Texas on a day known as Juneteenth. Frederick Douglass has officially joined the Capitol’s Congressional Statue Collection, serving not only as D.C.’s first statue in the collection, but also as a vital addition to the Capitol’s African American sculptures, joining the ranks of Dr. Martin Luther King, Sojourner Truth, and Rosa Parks. The arrival of his statue also welcomes the possibility for other US territories to argue for sculptural presence in the Capitol as well.

Steven Weitzman’s Frederick Douglass (Architect of the Capitol)

Legislation was sponsored by the Honorable Eleanor Holmes Norton (DC) in the House and the Honorable Chuck Schumer (NY) in the Senate, and both were in attendance with inspiring remarks at Wednesday’s ceremony. There is no doubt that Douglass’ presence will do DC residents proud, along with the thousands of other tourists who visit our nation’s Capitol each year. Born into slavery in Talbot County, Maryland, Douglass escaped to freedom and went on to become one of the most important figures in history to fight for civil rights. He fought for freedom throughout his life for both African-Americans and women, from equal voting rights to anti-lynching laws, and eventually made Washington D.C. his home.

Rep. Nancy Pelosi speaks at the dedication ceremony. The statue of Douglass watches from the far left. (Allie Swislocki)

Douglass’ impact as a champion of civil rights is still felt today and was apparent during the unveiling ceremony. In addition to the dignitaries mentioned previously, some famous names and faces participated: Dr. Edna Greene Medford, current chair of Howard University’s Department of History; Congresswoman Nancy Pelosi (CA); Senator Mitch McConnell (KY); Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid (NV); Speaker of the House John Boehner (OH); and Vice President Joe Biden.  Seeing such illustrious figures speak about Douglass was certainly a thrill, but a different excitement came when a representative from Douglass’ family got up to deliver a word of thanks. Nettie Washington Douglass is a descendent of both Frederick Douglass and his peer (and rival), Booker T. Washington. Hearing her talk about her family’s history and background was like watching a piece of history come to life in front of us.

The event was highlighted with beautiful musical selections: the United States Army Brass Quartet’s selections and the United States Army Chorus’s rendition of “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” helped set the backdrop of the Civil War. Lori Williams’ version of the freedom song “Oh, Freedom” (also performed by Joan Baez at the March on Washington in 1963—50^th anniversary coming up in August!) was absolutely stirring. We could see the reaction on all the attendee’s faces—Vice President Biden himself was awestruck. It was a great vision of how far we’ve come—as a country—since Douglass’ lifetime, and a reminder of how far we still have to go.

For more information, please visit the Architect of the Capitol’s page on the Douglass statue.

Villa Torlonia Teatro

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Constantino Brumidi, Villa Torlonia

— by Randy Groves

Two years ago I wandered past Rome’s Villa Torlonia – the neo-classical palace on the Via Nomentana – that struck my memory more because it was the residence of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini than for any other reason. Another thought crept in: Hadn’t Constantino Brumidi painted some murals somewhere in the impressive villa in its idyllic park setting? I quickly scribbled a note in my journal to check into it and wandered along about my business.

A few days later (and after a little research) I made my way back and toured the palace. I asked a young man working in a small bookstore about the Brumidi murals in the teatro (theater.) Imagine my surprise – especially given the weight we ascribe to Brumidi in the Capitol building – when the young man said he’d never heard of him and had no information. Instead, he pointed to a fenced off building in the southwest corner of the property and told me it was closed to the public.

Alternately puzzled and amused, I wandered away making a mental note to dig into it a little more closely when I wasn’t as pressed for time.

Fast forward two years and a handful of email exchanges in Italian.

Despite some minor irritations on the American side of the Atlantic, I happily secured permission to view and photograph Brumidi’s murals in the teatro. Arriving at Villa Torlonia, I was met by Rome’s Superintendent of Cultural Heritage and the official in charge of Villa Torlonia, Annapaola Agati, at the palace’s limonaia – originally a greenhouse for citrus fruits that Mussolini also used as a movie theater.

In short order, we were in the newly refurbished theater. After almost half a century of decline and neglect, it recently completed a nine-year, 8 million Euro restoration project to return it to its original grandeur. With my first glimpse came the realization the two-year wait was worth every minute.

Corridor, Villa Torlonia

Corridor, U.S. Senate

Immediately I felt as though I were in some type of time warp and had been transported back to the very familiar Brumidi corridors of U.S. Capitol. The various rooms and hallways of the west apartment directly showed his handiwork. Familiar door and wall panels greeted me. The style is nearly identical to the Senate corridors. As in the corridors of their Senate cousins, Villa Torlonia’s art depicts densely intricate lattice work, animals, figures, birds, flora, fauna and perhaps Brumidi’s most endearing subject – cherubs.

Door Panel, Villa Torlonia

Wall Panel, Villa Torlonia

Though not appearing to be as refined as the artwork in the Capitol building, it clearly belongs to Brumidi. A small panel bears his signature “Brumidi 1844” – placing him in this spot roughly a dozen years before he painted in the Capitol. I admit wondering if I were being prejudiced in favor of the Capitol or whether Brumidi’s ability undoubtedly improved over time. I still haven’t decided definitively.

As we visited the theater’s apartments (used as housing space during or between shows) I was struck repeatedly with the familiar style elements. Use of color… Frieze… Cherubs… Patterns…

Panel with Brumidi’s signature and date (Courtesy of Sovrintendenza Capitolina Ufficio delle Parchi Storici Comune di Roma.)

High above the semicircular stage are 12 maidens and Apollo – seemingly exact replicas of those found in the Senate Appropriations committee room (which ironically were most likely painted before those in Rome.) Evidence of Brumidi’s handiwork? Perhaps. Perhaps not. Agati pointed out the while the maidens in both places where Brumidi painted suggest he was at the least involved in planning the art at Villa Torlonia, he left for America in 1852 prior to them actually being painted. The theater wasn’t completed until 1874. Though his influence is evident, the similarities are more likely because they are based on Raphael’s Hours of Day and Night.

Villa Torlonia maiden (left), Senate Appropriations maiden (right)

Above the stage are four round frieze images of the poet fathers of Italian literature that, again, bear a striking resemblance to round friezes in the Senate corridors. It is worth noting, again, that Brumidi most likely planned but did not paint the frieze images above the stage:

Dante, Villa Torlonia (left), John Jay, U.S. Senate (right)

Cherub panel at Villa Torlonia (left), Cherub inspired stairwell in U.S. Senate (right)

With apologies to my friend Joe Grano, I couldn’t resist asking whether the oft-made comparison with Michelangelo is fair. “No,” Agati said, pointing out Michelangelo is much more important for the pictorial quality of his paintings, and because it was an example and a model that has caught on.

“Brumidi,” Agati said, “is not well known in Italy because he performed only a few works whose most important is the Theatre of Villa Torlonia by the commission of Alessandro Torlonia. Then after being imprisoned, he sailed for America. In Italy there were nonetheless many other good artists and there was plenty of competition.”

The principle difference is the media used. Brumidi, Agati pointed out, worked in oil and tempera in Villa Torlonia as compared to his largely fresco work in the Capitol building. For me, the most natural question is whether Brumidi is truly a master artist, or more of a contract painter who replicated his earlier works with some modification – given their astonishing similarities.

Perhaps the largest and most striking similarity between art in the Capitol and Rome is Brumidi’s most famous work The Apotheosis of Washington, which bears a remarkable resemblance to the oculus of the small dome at Madonna dell’Archetto (Our Lady of the Arch.) An earlier blog entry shows images of the small chapel’s dome and it is easy to compare the two thematically.

“I think Brumidi can rightly be called a ‘master’ because in America he taught a new way of painting that they (previously) did not know,” Agati said.

Perusing the internet, I discovered this little Brumidi nugget on an Italian art and cultural blog called ArtMaSko:

One day, when the restoration of the small theater of Villa Torlonia in Rome is finally concluded, curious visitors with a keen sense of observation might run into a cycle of frescoes whose author, Brumidi, is totally unknown. Apart from specialists, few have had the good fortune to even encounter his name. Who was he? A first answer might be: the one who planned and executed the decoration of the apartments attached to the theater. It is certain that the vault and the lunettes of the hall in the west apartment and the decorations of the small east gallery and apartment are all the work of the artist born in Rome, of a Greek father.

An unknown, perhaps autobiographical panel at Villa Torlonia

To view more of the images from Villa Torlonia, please click here.

The author and the U.S. Capitol Historical Society gratefully express our appreciation to Umberto Broccoli, Superintendent of Culture, Capital of Rome, and Annapaola Agati for their kind permission and assistance. All photos of Villa Torlonia were taken by the author, courtesy of the Sovrintendenza Capitolina Ufficio delle Parchi Storici Comune di Roma, and may not be reproduced.